PRB 04-28E

International Organizations in Europe (Canadian Involvement)

Prepared by:
Marcus Pistor
Political and Social Affairs Division
Revised 13 March 2008

PDF (191 Kb, 22 pages)

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Table of Contents

• Introduction
• International Organizations in Europe
• A. Organizations of European Governance
• 1. European Union (EU)
• a. Canada and the EU
• 2. Council of Europe
• a. Canada and the Council of Europe
• 3. Western European Union (WEU)
• B. Transatlantic Security Organizations
• 1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
• a. Canada and NATO
• 2. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
• a. Canada and the OSCE
• C. Other, Primarily European Organizations With Non-European Membership
• 1. Arctic Council
• a. Canada and the Arctic Council
• 2. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
• a. Canada and the EBRD
• 3. G8
• a. Canada and the G8
• 4. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
• a. Canada and the OECD
• Tables and Figures
• Table 1   – The European Union, the Council of Europe and Their Institutions
• Figure 1 –  Membership in Key International Organizations in Europe
• Table 2   – Canadian Involvement in International Organizations in Europe
• Endnotes

Introduction

Europe has the most extensive political architecture of any region in the world. After World War II, several international organizations (IOs) were set up to reduce long-standing tensions among European countries, facilitate economic reconstruction and development, improve cooperation in a broad range of policy areas, and ensure the security of European sub regions. Since the late 1980s, existing organizations have grown substantially in membership and scope, and additional ones have been created, while Soviet Bloc IOs have disappeared. This has occurred in a period of profound change, characterized by the end of the Cold War and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, economic globalization, growing awareness of the increasingly global nature of environmental, economic, social and cultural issues, and an unprecedented growth in the number of democracies in the world.(1)

There are several types of IOs in Europe. First, there are institutions of European governance, most importantly the European Union and the Council of Europe. Second, there are several sub-regional IOs set up to address common challenges of distinct regions in Europe. These include the Nordic Council, the Baltic Assembly, and the Black Sea Economic Cooperation. Third, there are organizations created in the post-World War II period to strengthen ties among European countries and between North America and Europe – first, Western Europe, and later the whole continent – in particular in the area of security. These are the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe. Finally, there are several IOs set up to improve cooperation and coordination in specific policy areas. While truly inter-regional or even global in reach, they have significant European membership and, in some cases, have – or had – a European focus or origin. These include the Arctic Council, the G8, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Finally, a number of global IOs have significant European membership and involvement, and some of these have sub-organizations focusing on Europe (e.g., the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe).

In addition to developing the most extensive network of IOs in the world, Europe is the region that has most extensively and consistently embraced multilateralism and the creation of a rules-based international system. At the same time, Europe has traditionally been a vital factor in North American economic and security interests, and the two continents have strong historical ties. For these reasons, involvement in European and Europe-centred IOs has long been an important aspect of Canadian foreign policy and a priority for Canadian parliamentarians.

Europe’s political architecture continues to evolve. Perhaps the most important dimension of this change is the enlargement, deeper integration and growing regional and global influence of the European Union. At the same time, transatlantic security institutions and other IOs with a significant European membership continue to play a vital and increasingly important role in linking European countries and international organizations to the current and emerging powers around the world.

This paper provides an overview of the sometimes confusing political architecture of Europe. To do so, it will briefly describe Europe’s major international organizations, including their parliamentary assemblies, and Canada’s involvement in them.(2) The paper focuses on three types of IOs: organizations of European governance; transatlantic security organizations; and other, primarily European, organizations with non European membership. The information is summarized in a figure showing the membership of the most important IOs, and in Table 2, which summarizes Canada’s involvement in these organizations. Table 1 lists the main institutions of the Council of Europe and the European Union, to help clarify the extensive institutional structure of these two organizations of European governance.

International Organizations in Europe

A. Organizations of European Governance

1. European Union (EU)

The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was founded in 1952 by Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. In 1958, the broader European Economic Community was created out of the ECSC with the goal of developing a customs union and fostering closer cooperation in other areas. Since then, the organization has expanded in membership: the United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark joined in 1973; Greece in 1981; Portugal and Spain in 1986; Austria, Finland and Sweden in 1995; Malta, Cyprus and eight central and eastern European countries in 2004; and Bulgaria and Romania in 2007. The organization, which was renamed the European Union (EU) in 1993, has also grown considerably in scope, especially with the creation of the Economic and Monetary Union and the Common Foreign and Security Policy in the 1990s. EU institutions and the governments of member states now develop and coordinate policy in virtually all areas and play an increasingly important global role.

Today, the EU is an organization of 27 European industrial democracies with a population of 493 million. It constitutes the world’s most integrated and extensive system of international governance. It includes a single internal market, a common external trade policy, a shared external borders regime, and a common currency (the euro) for 15 of its 27 members. All but one of Europe’s most important economies (Switzerland) are part of the Union. The EU is a multi-level system of governance with supranational and intergovernmental elements. In policy areas such as external trade and internal market issues, jurisdiction lies with the institutions of the EU (the European Commission), while in areas such as foreign and security policy, education and immigration, jurisdiction lies with the member states or their provinces, although members may be required to cooperate in some policy areas. In still others, jurisdiction is shared between EU institutions and member governments.

The main EU institutions are the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union (representing the governments of the member states), the European Commission (the main executive body), the Court of Justice (ensuring compliance with EU law), and the Court of Auditors (ensuring sound and lawful management of the EU budget). In addition, there are the European Economic and Social Committee (a forum for member states’ economic, social and civic organizations), the Committee of the Regions (regional and local authorities), the European Central Bank (responsible for monetary policy and managing the euro), the office of the European Ombudsman (which deals with citizens’ complaints about maladministration by any EU institution or body), and the European Investment Bank (which helps achieve EU objectives by financing investment projects), as well as a number of agencies and other bodies. The European Parliament (EP) has been directly elected by the citizens of the member states since 1979. It has considerable powers to affect EU legislation, budgets, and policy positions in many areas; moreover, the membership of the European Commission, one of the EU’s main legislative and executive bodies, has to be approved by the EP.

The growth in EU membership (referred to as enlargement or “widening”) and the significant increases in joint policy development and coordination (“deepening”) have made it increasingly difficult for the Union’s policy and decision-making institutions to be effective. Ambitious institutional reform efforts have failed in the past. For example, a Constitutional Treaty agreed to in 2004 encountered considerable popular and political opposition and could not be ratified. However, in 2007 the EU’s heads of state and government agreed to a Reform Treaty (also known as the Lisbon Treaty), which is expected to be ratified by the end of 2008, in time for the 2009 elections to the European Parliament. The Lisbon Treaty will make significant changes to EU institutions and to the respective roles of the EP and national parliaments, as follows:

• The European Parliament will gain additional powers in the legislative process and with respect to international agreements and treaties. It will elect the president of the European Commission.

• The adoption of EU legislation will be subject to the prior scrutiny of national parliaments.

• Instead of the current rotating presidency of the European Council, which changes hands every six months among member states, the president of the European Council will be appointed for a 2.5 year period. The Council president will be responsible for the overall management of the EU. The rotating presidency of the Council of Ministers in their different policy-area constellations and of the related committees and working groups of national officials remains in place, but probably without the overall political responsibility or prestige associated with the current presidencies.

• More decisions in the European Council will be made by qualified majority voting, allowing the EU to make decisions more efficiently and to develop common policies in more areas.

• In order to give the EU a stronger, more coherent role in international affairs, the position of High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HR) will be created by merging the functions of the current High Representative with those of the External Relations Commissioner. The new HR will be both the Council’s representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and the European Commission’s vice-president. There will be a single EU diplomatic service. The EU will, for the first time, have a single legal personality, allowing it to conclude international treaties in a range of policy areas.(3)

a. Canada and the EU

Canada has developed a close relationship with the EU, both bilaterally and in multilateral fora. Cooperation has increasingly included the full range of national and international policies, from peace and security, election monitoring and crisis management to trade and investment, energy, migration and fisheries. Canada has partnered with the EU in crisis management, post-conflict reconstruction and democratic development around the world, including in Sudan, the Middle East, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Haiti, the Balkans, and Afghanistan. The EU as a whole is Canada’s second-largest trading partner, the second most important source of foreign direct investment and the second most important destination for Canadian investment abroad. The EU is a vital partner for science and technology partnerships and Canada’s second most important source of new technologies.

The prime minister meets with the heads of the EU about once a year, and there are annual meetings between the Canada-Europe Parliamentary Association and the European Parliament’s Delegation for Relations with Canada.

2. Council of Europe

The Council of Europe was founded in 1949. Its membership, which currently stands at 47 countries, has grown significantly since 1989 to include countries from Central and Eastern Europe and the Southern Caucasus. The Council’s main objective is to promote democratic development, human rights and the rule of law, and to hold member governments accountable for their performance in these areas. It is also very active in fostering international cooperation and policy coordination in a number of other areas, including justice, education, culture, heritage, environmental protection, health care, and social cohesion. The Council played a central role in setting international standards in many of these areas, producing nearly 200 international treaties and conventions, some of which are open to non-member states. It works closely with the European Union and the Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe in a number of areas, in particular the development of international legal standards, and when monitoring the human rights situation and elections in member states.(4)

The Council of Europe’s main institutions are the Committee of Ministers (its main decision-making body), the Parliamentary Assembly, the Commissioner for Human Rights, and the European Human Rights Court. One of the primary functions of these institutions is to enforce the Council’s international human rights treaties, in particular the European Convention on Human Rights.

The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) meets four times a year in Strasbourg, committee meetings taking place more frequently. In addition to its role in the Council, the Assembly serves as a parliamentary forum for several international organizations, including the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Organization for Migration.

a. Canada and the Council of Europe

Canada is observer to both the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly. The Canada-Europe Parliamentary Association sends a delegation to the four annual sessions of the Assembly and to some committee meetings, while Canadian officials attend meetings of the Council of Ministers and the Ministers’ Deputies, meetings of the Rapporteur Groups, which develop proposals for consideration by the Deputies, and meetings of various expert working groups.

Table 1 – The European Union, the Council of Europe and Their Institutions(5)

3. Western European Union (WEU)

The WEU was created in 1948 by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Known originally as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, it was intended to provide for collective self-defence and economic, social and cultural collaboration among its members. In 1954, the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy joined, and it became the WEU. Accession by Portugal and Spain (in 1990) and Greece (in 1995) brought its membership to ten. In addition to those ten members (which are also members of both the EU and NATO), the WEU has six associate members (also members of NATO), five observers (also members of the EU), and seven associate partners (all signatories of a Europe Agreement with the EU and now also EU members).

The future of the WEU has increasingly been called into question, for several reasons. First, its importance has diminished with the strengthening of the EU’s European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) and the Union’s rapidly growing involvement in crisis management operations. Second, since the recent enlargement of the EU, there has been a substantial overlap in membership between the two organizations: all current EU members are part of the WEU, as is Turkey, which began accession negotiations with the EU in 2005. Finally, there is substantial organizational overlap with the EU: the EU’s High Representative is also the WEU Secretary-General, and the members of the EU’s Political and Security Committee (PSC) also make up the WEU Permanent Council.

The Assembly of the WEU is now perhaps the most active and important body of the WEU. It is an inter-parliamentary organization whose members are delegated by national parliaments. In addition to the 28 countries that hold member, associate member, observer or associate partner status with the WEU, parliamentarians from another 11 European countries participate in the Assembly. This makes it the primary European inter-parliamentary institution through which parliamentarians can discuss and monitor security and defence issues.

B. Transatlantic Security Organizations

1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Created in 1949 by 12 countries in Europe and North America (including Canada), NATO played an important role during the Cold War as an alliance based on security guarantees and mutual commitments in the face of what was then perceived to be an expansionary Soviet threat. The role and membership of NATO has changed considerably since the end of the Cold War. NATO has reshaped itself into an organization that provides cooperative security structures for the whole of Europe and engages in peacekeeping and crisis management tasks outside its member countries, including in Kosovo and Afghanistan.

The 26 members (as of April 2004) include many former Warsaw Pact countries, and NATO has developed close relations with other countries in the region through its Partnership for Peace initiative, which led to the creation of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). The EAPC serves an overall framework for cooperation between NATO and the EAPC’s 23 partner countries. Three countries – Albania, Croatia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia –currently participate in NATO’s Membership Action Plan, designed to assist countries that wish to join NATO in their preparations.

The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is an inter-parliamentary organization consisting of delegates from the national parliaments of NATO member countries and from 16 associate member parliaments. It is an important forum for transatlantic and European parliamentary dialogue on a range of security, political and economic issues. The Assembly holds two plenary sessions a year. In addition, there are meetings of committees, subcommittees and working groups, as well as other programs such as seminars, the New Parliamentarians Programme, the Parliamentary Transatlantic Forum, and hearings at the European Parliament.

a. Canada and NATO

Canada was a founding member of NATO, and until the 1970s, this alliance was Canada’s main multilateral forum for its transatlantic relations. Although the EU and the OSCE have become increasingly important, NATO remains central to Canada’s commitment to security in Europe and beyond, including through significant Canadian contributions to the NATO mission in Afghanistan.

2. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

The Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), the OSCE’s predecessor, was created in 1973. It included almost all European countries from both the West and the Soviet Block. The CSCE played an important role in opening channels of communication between Cold War adversaries and in promoting stabilization and peaceful change in Europe. Following the creation of more permanent organizational structures in the wake of the fall of Communism, the CSCE became the OSCE in 1995.

The OSCE is today the largest regional security organization in the world. It has 56 members from Europe, Central Asia and North America. The OSCE follows a comprehensive approach to security, incorporating traditional military security and human security. The organization is active in early warning, conflict prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation. It has a staff of about 450 people in its various institutions and around 3,000 in its 19 missions or field operations in Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. The OSCE’s work focuses on facilitating political processes, preventing or settling conflicts, and promoting civil society and the rule of law. The OSCE works closely with the Council of Europe on a number of projects, in particular when monitoring the human rights situation or elections in member states.

The CSCE Parliamentary Assembly was established in 1991 by high-level parliamentary leaders from member countries. With the creation of the OSCE, it became that organization’s inter-parliamentary assembly. Its activities include annual sessions, winter and other meetings, sub-regional conferences and seminars, election monitoring missions, field visits, and the Prize for Journalism and Democracy, as well as interaction with other OSCE institutions and inter-parliamentary cooperation.

a. Canada and the OSCE

The Government of Canada works closely with various OSCE bodies on human security issues, the post-conflict rehabilitation of civilians, addressing the root causes of terrorism, and promoting arms control issues. Canada provides funding for a number of projects under the OSCE. Canadian parliamentarians have been very active in the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, including as committee chairs and as rapporteurs.

C. Other, Primarily European Organizations With Non-European Membership

1. Arctic Council

The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum created in 1996 – on the initiative of Canada and of Europe’s Nordic countries – to address the common concerns and challenges faced by Arctic countries: Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden and the United States. The Council is unique in that it provides for a mechanism of cooperation between national governments and indigenous peoples. Arctic indigenous communities are represented by six international organizations that have the status of Permanent Participants. A number of non Arctic countries, IOs and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are accredited as observers. The Arctic Council is particularly active in the areas of environmental monitoring and protection, and sustainable development.

The Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region is the parliamentary assembly of the Arctic Council. It consists of delegations appointed by the national parliaments of the Arctic states and the European Parliament, and includes Permanent Participants representing indigenous peoples, as well as observers. The conference meets every two years. The Seventh Conference was held in Kiruna, Sweden, in August 2006. The Eighth Conference will take place in Fairbanks, Alaska, in August 2008. Between conferences, the Standing Committee of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region meets several times a year to coordinate Arctic parliamentary cooperation.

a. Canada and the Arctic Council

The Arctic Council was established by the Ottawa Declaration in 1996. Canada was its first Chair and has participated actively in the work of the Council. The Canadian government has also developed its circumpolar policy through closer cooperation with the European Union (e.g., the 1999 Joint Statement on Northern Cooperation) and the Northern Dimension of Canada’s Foreign Policy (2000). The Canada-Europe Parliamentary Association sends a delegation to the biennial Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region and representatives to the meetings of the Standing Committee of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region.

2. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)

The EBRD was founded in 1991 in the wake of the collapse of communist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe. Its members/shareholders include 61 countries and two international organizations. The EBRD’s purpose is to “foster the transition towards open, market-oriented economies in Central and South-eastern Europe, as well as in the successor states of the former Soviet Union, and to promote private and entrepreneurial initiative in those countries that are committed to the fundamental principles of multi-party democracy, pluralism and a market economy.”(6) The Bank provides project finance (equity, loans, and loan guarantees), primarily to the private sector, but also to governments in 29 countries. Its newest country of operation is Mongolia. The Bank’s mandate requires it to work only in countries committed to human rights and democratic principles. In addition, EBRD investments must reflect its commitment to strong corporate governance and respect for the environment.(7)

While there is no parliamentary body for the EBRD, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) serves as the EBRD’s parliamentary forum. Every year, the PACE Committee on Economic Affairs and Development meets at the EBRD with the organization’s top officials to discuss the contribution of the Bank to economic development in Central and Eastern Europe. One of its members prepares a report and a draft resolution which is then debated by PACE.

a. Canada and the EBRD

Canada is the eighth-largest shareholder (tied with Spain), contributing 3.4% of the Bank’s capital. The Canadian minister of Finance is a governor of the EBRD; and one of 23 directors on the Board of Directors is appointed by the Canadian government. Members of the House of Commons and the Senate participate regularly in PACE meetings at the EBRD and in subsequent Assembly debates.

3. G8

The G8 is an informal group of the world’s major industrial democracies: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. The European Union also participates. The G8 is an important venue for exchanging views on, and developing common responses to, global challenges. Although the focus is on the economy, leaders have also addressed issues such as terrorism, drugs and international crime, the conflict in Kosovo, and infectious diseases. The Chair of the G8 rotates on an annual basis. The country holding the Chair is responsible for hosting and organizing the annual summit. Preparations include several meetings at which “sherpas,” personal representatives of the leaders, come together to discuss potential agenda issues. Following the summit, the sherpas also oversee the implementation of the commitments made. There is no parliamentary assembly of the G8.

a. Canada and the G8

Canada chaired the G8 last in 2002, when the annual summit was held in Kananaskis, Alberta. Under Canadian stewardship, the summit adopted the G8 Africa Action Plan, which set out specific commitments by G8 countries in support of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development.

4. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

The OECD is an organization of 30 countries in Europe (23), North America (Canada, Mexico, the United States) and the Asia-Pacific region (Australia, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea) that are committed to democratic government and the market economy. First created after World War II as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation to administer American and Canadian aid for the reconstruction of Europe under the Marshall Plan, the organization has since broadened its scope considerably. Today, it maintains active relations with over 70 countries, as well as with NGOs and civil society. In May 2007, OECD countries agreed to invite Chile, Estonia, Israel, Russia and Slovenia to open discussions for membership in the Organisation and offered enhanced engagement, with a view to possible membership, to Brazil, China, India, Indonesia and South Africa. The approval of so-called “road maps” in December 2007 marked the start of accession talks with Chile, Estonia, Israel, Russia and Slovenia.”(8)

There are 2,500 staff at the OECD Secretariat in Paris. Of these, about 700 are economists, lawyers, scientists and other professional staff who provide research and analysis, including statistics and policy tools. The OECD produces comparative research and policy guidelines in a wide range of areas, including agriculture, corporate governance, development, economics, education, energy, environment, finance and investment, health, public governance and management, social issues, and sustainable development. Its research and statistics are used widely by policy-makers, academics and the private sector. The OECD also has peer review processes in place, through which each member country’s performance in areas such as economic policy and development assistance are assessed in detail using agreed-upon indicators and criteria. One of the most important policy committees of the OECD is the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), which brings together the 23 major development aid donors.

Although there is no parliamentary body for the OECD, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) serves as its parliamentary forum. Every year, the PACE Committee on Economic Affairs and Development meets at the OECD with the organization’s top officials to discuss the OECD and the state of the world economy. One of its members prepares a report and a draft resolution, which is then debated by PACE. In this debate, delegations from OECD countries that are not members of PACE, such as Canada, Japan, Mexico, and South Korea, have full participation and voting rights. The Economics and Security Committee of the NATO Parliamentary Assembly also makes annual visits to the OECD.

a. Canada and the OECD

Canada has been a member of the OECD since its creation. Canadian ministers and officials participate in the various OECD committees and meetings. From 1996 to 2006, Canadian Donald Johnston was the OECD’s Secretary-General. Members of the House of Commons and the Senate participate each year in PACE committee meetings at the OECD and in the subsequent Assembly debate.

Table 2 – Canadian Involvement in International Organizations in Europe

Endnotes

1. According to the United Nations, the number of democracies around the globe nearly doubled in the 1990s (United Nations Press Release, “With UN Help, Number of Democracies Nearly Doubled in Past Decade, Annan Reports,” 14 November 2001).
2. Unless indicated otherwise, these descriptions draw on the organizations’ official Web sites or the Government of Canada Web sites listed in this document.
3. Lisbon Treaty.
4. The Council of Europe should not be confused with the European Council (the regular meetings of the heads of state or government of the European Union member states) or the Council of the European Union / Council of Ministers (the EU’s main decision-making institution, which consists of the ministers of the 27 member states responsible for the area of activity on the agenda). See Table 1 and the Glossary of the European Union.
5. This is not a comprehensive list; it includes only the main institutions.
6. Canada, Department of Finance Web site.
7. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
8. OECD, “About the OECD.”
9. The PACE Committee on Economic Affairs and Development has an annual meeting at the EBRD in London (normally in January) and prepares a report on the EBRD. At a subsequent session (usually in June), the Assembly debates the report in the presence of the head of the EBRD. Canadian delegates can participate in the committee’s work and the Assembly debate in their role as observers to PACE.
10. This debate – and the preceding meetings of the PACE Committee on Economic Affairs and Development in Strasbourg and at the OECD in Paris – allow delegations from OECD countries that are not members of PACE, such as Canada, Japan, Mexico, and South Korea, full participation and voting rights; hence, “enlarged” debate.